By the eighteenth century, city-states such as Lamu and Zanzibar had built up fleets of dhows--beautifully carved single-masted sailing vessels large enough to traverse the ocean. As the dhows multiplied, the ports expanded along the waterfronts of Swahili settlements. In addition to import trade, wealthy landowners developed a monocultural plantation economy for the production and export of spices such as clove, cinnamon, vanilla, clove, and black pepper. Based on slavery and indentured servitude, the plantation system created an increasingly class-divided society, with the Omani rulers at the top, the local Shirazi elite in the middle, and at the bottom a large population of workers on the docks, plantations, and shop floors. This import-export economy produced considerable wealth, which is evident in successive waves of investment in housing, customs facilities, quays, esplanades, dry docks, and mosques in the Old Stone Towns.
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