German and British officials struggled for influence over the Omani Sultanate at Zanzibar. By the end of the nineteenth century, the British declared the East African Protectorate, and exerted direct control up through the post-World War II decades. Colonial planners left their marks in a variety of architectural and urban planning projects, from Art Deco office and apartment buildings to centralized market facilities to Modernist mass housing developments. Tanganyika gained formal independence in 1961 and Kenya in 1963. Zanzibar gained independence in 1963 as a constitutional Sultanate, then united with mainland Tanganyika in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s leaders of the East African nations attempted a variety of development initiatives to jumpstart their economies, while coastal cities began to expand with migrants from the hinterlands. Since the 1980s, heritage tourism on the Swahili coast accounts for a substantial part of Kenyan and Tanzanian GDP, and the stone towns of Lamu and Zanzibar both became UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Meanwhile, larger cities such as Dar es Salaam and Mombasa built expanded port facilities and opened up new areas for urban expansion, while large numbers of migrants continue to flow into the informal settlements that ring the peripheral areas.
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